PETER LED THE CHRISTIAN MOVEMENT UNTIL SAUL BECAME PAUL.
VERN BENDER
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The Council of Nicaea dealt primarily with the issue of the deity of Christ. The term “Trinity” was already in use, with the earliest existing reference being by Theophilus of Antioch (AD 115–181), referring to Theos, the Logos, and Sophia[91] (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as several Church fathers referred to the Holy Spirit). However, many scholars believe that the way the term was used indicates that it was known previously to his readers. Also, over a century before, the term “Trinity” (Τριάς in Greek; Trinitas in Latin) was used in the writings of Origen and Tertullian, and a general notion of a “divine three,” in some sense, was expressed in the 2nd-century writings of Polycarp, Ignatius, and Justin Martyr. In Nicaea, questions regarding the Holy Spirit were mainly left unaddressed until the relationship between the Father and the Son was settled around 362.[92]The doctrine in a more full-fledged form was not formulated until the Council of Constantinople in 381[93], and a final form was formulated primarily by Gregory of Nyssa.[94]
The Council of Nicaea dealt primarily with the issue of the deity of Christ. The term “Trinity” was already in use, with the earliest existing reference being by Theophilus of Antioch (AD 115–181), referring to Theos, the Logos, and Sophia[91] (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as several Church fathers referred to the Holy Spirit). However, many scholars believe that the way the term was used indicates that it was known previously to his readers. Also, over a century before, the term “Trinity” (Τριάς in Greek; Trinitas in Latin) was used in the writings of Origen and Tertullian, and a general notion of a “divine three,” in some sense, was expressed in the 2nd-century writings of Polycarp, Ignatius, and Justin Martyr. In Nicaea, questions regarding the Holy Spirit were mainly left unaddressed until the relationship between the Father and the Son was settled around 362.[92]The doctrine in a more full-fledged form was not formulated until the Council of Constantinople in 381[93], and a final form was formulated primarily by Gregory of Nyssa.[94]
The Council of Nicaea dealt primarily with the issue of the deity of Christ. The term “Trinity” was already in use, with the earliest existing reference being by Theophilus of Antioch (AD 115–181), referring to Theos, the Logos, and Sophia[91] (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as several Church fathers referred to the Holy Spirit).
THE TRINITY.
The Council of Nicaea dealt primarily with the issue of the deity of Christ. The term “Trinity” was already in use, with the earliest existing reference being by Theophilus of Antioch (AD 115–181), referring to Theos, the Logos, and Sophia[91] (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as several Church fathers referred to the Holy Spirit), though many scholars believe that the way the term was used indicates that it was known previously to his readers. Also, over a century before, the term “Trinity” (Τριάς in Greek; Trinitas in Latin) was used in the writings of Origen and Tertullian, and a general notion of a “divine three,” in some sense, was expressed in the 2nd-century writings of Polycarp, Ignatius, and Justin Martyr. In Nicaea, questions regarding the Holy Spirit were mainly left unaddressed until the relationship between the Father and the Son was settled around 362.[92] The doctrine in a more full-fledged form was not formulated until the Council of Constantinople in 381[93], and a final form was formulated primarily by Gregory of Nyssa.[94]
Constantine
Resolution of the Melitian schism
Suppressing the Melitian schism, an early breakaway sect, was another important matter before the Council of Nicaea. Melitius, it was decided, should remain in his city of Lycopolis in Egypt. Still, without exercising authority or the power to ordain new clergy, he was forbidden to enter the town’s environs or another diocese to ordain its subjects. Melitius retained his episcopal title, but the ecclesiastics he ordained were to receive the laying on of hands again and the ordinations performed by to do anything without the consent of Bishop Alexander.[71]
If a non-Melitian bishop or ecclesiastic dies, the vacant seat might be given to a Melitian, provided he was worthy and Alexander ratified the popular election. Melitius’ episcopal rights and prerogatives were taken from him. These mild measures, however, were in vain; the Melitians joined the Arians and caused more debate than ever among Athanasius’s worst enemies. The Melitians ultimately died out around the middle of the 5th century.
The Council promulgated twenty new church laws, called canons (though the exact number is subject to debate), namely, rules of discipline. The twenty as listed in the works of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers are as follows:[72]
establishment of a minimum term for catechumens (persons studying for baptism)
prohibition of a man and a woman who have both taken vows of chastity to live together in a chaste and non-legalized partnership (the so-called virgins subintroductae, who practiced syneisaktism)
ordination of a bishop in the presence of at least three provincial bishops[59] and confirmation by the metropolitan bishop
provision for two provincial synods to be held annually
confirmation of ancient customs giving jurisdiction over large regions to the bishops of Alexandria, Rome, and Antioch
recognition of the honorary rights of the see of Jerusalem
provision for agreement with the Novatianists, an early sect
elders who had been ordained without sufficient examination were not to be recognized
elders who had lapsed but had not been found out were to be deposed
Mercy was enjoined toward those who had lapsed without compulsion, even though it was recognized that they did not deserve it
those who had left the military but later sought to be restored to their military position were to be excommunicated; depending on the sincerity of their repentance, they could be readmitted to communion earlier
those who were fulfilling penance could receive communion if they were dying, but if they got well again, they were to finish their penance
catechumens who lapsed were to have three years as hearers before being allowed to become catechumens again
bishops, presbyters, and deacons were not to wander into neighboring cities to officiate
clergy who refused to return to their home church were to be excommunicated, and the ordinations of those who were ordained by these wandering clergy were to be considered null and void
prohibition of kneeling on Sundays and during the Pentecost (the fifty days commencing on Easter). Standing was the normative posture for prayer at this time, as it still is among Eastern Christians. Kneeling was considered most appropriate to penitential prayer, distinct from Easter’s festive nature and remembrance every Sunday. The canon was designed only to ensure uniformity of practice at the designated times.
A fresco depicting the First Council of Nicaea at the Vatican‘s Sistine Salon
In the short term, the Council did not completely solve the problems it was convened to discuss, and a period of conflict and upheaval continued for some time. Constantine was succeeded by two Arian emperors in the Eastern Empire: his son, Constantius II, and Valens. Valens could not resolve the outstanding ecclesiastical issues and unsuccessfully confronted St. Basil over the Nicene Creed.[73]
Pagan powers within the empire sought to maintain and, at times, re-establish paganism in the emperor’s seat (see Arbogast and Julian the Apostate). Arians and Meletians soon regained nearly all of the rights they had lost. Consequently, Arianism continued to spread and be a subject of debate within the Church during the remainder of the 4th century. Almost immediately, Eusebius of Nicomedia, an Arian bishop and cousin to Constantine I, used his influence at court to sway Constantine’s favor from the proto-orthodox Nicene bishops to the Arians.[74]
Eustathius of Antioch was deposed and exiled in 330. Athanasius, who had succeeded Alexander as Bishop of Alexandria, was deposed by the First Synod of Tyre in 335, and Marcellus of Ancyra followed him in 336. Arius returned to Constantinople to be readmitted to the Church but died shortly before he could be received. Constantine died the following year after finally receiving baptism from Arian Bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, and “with his passing the first round in the battle after the Council of Nicaea was ended.”[74]
