WHEN THE TRUTH IS GONE YOU GET LIES, HOW TO GET THE TRUTH BACK
VERN BENDER
Logical fallacies are everywhere. Once you know how to recognize them, you’ll notice just how common they are—and how they can undermine the point their writer is attempting to make. Being able to identify logical fallacies in others’ writing as well as in your own will make you a more critical thinker, which will make you a stronger writer and reader.
A logical fallacy is an argument that can be disproven through reasoning. This differs from a subjective opinion or one that can be disproven with facts; for a position to be a logical fallacy, it must be logically flawed or deceptive.
Compare the following two disputable arguments. Only one contains a logical fallacy: If you go outside without a coat, you’ll catch a cold. If you go outside without a coat, you’ll catch a cold and infect the rest of the family. Then, your sister will have to miss class, get a poor grade, and fail her course.
Can you spot the logical fallacy in the second argument? It’s a slippery slope fallacy, a position that claims that particular consequences will follow an action. Although both statements can be proven wrong by going outside without a coat and staying perfectly healthy (and pointing to the proven fact that the only way to catch a cold is to be exposed to a virus), the first one is incorrect, not logically flawed.
The history of logical fallacies
Logical fallacies are likely as old as language. Still, they were first recognized and cataloged as such in the Nyāya-Strauss, the foundational text of the Nyāya school of Hindu philosophy. This text, written between the 6th century BCE and the 2nd century CE and attributed to occupied Gautama, identified five distinct ways an argument could be logically flawed.
Greek philosopher Aristotle also wrote about logical fallacies. In his work Sophistical Refutations, he identified thirteen fallacies divided into verbal and material. By Aristotle’s definition, a verbal fallacy is one in which the language used is ambiguous or incorrect, and a material fallacy is an argument that involves faulty reasoning.
Today, our understanding of logical fallacies comes from these sources and contributions from later scholars like Richard.
You’ll find logical fallacies just about anywhere you find people debating and using rhetoric, especially in spaces that aren’t academic or professional. We can almost guarantee that you’ve encountered logical fallacies on social media, especially in the comments under divisive posts. But remember that they can and often do appear in academic writing, especially when the author has to defend a position, like argumentative essays and persuasive writing. They can even show up in expository writing.
Logical fallacies aren’t restricted to just one age group, political affiliation, gender, race, religion, subculture, or other shared characteristic—they’re universally human. Our brains aren’t perfect, and even intelligent people can fall prey to making logically inconsistent statements and arguments. Usually, people make these kinds of statements because they haven’t thought through them logically, not because they intend to make flawed arguments. But in some cases, the writer or speaker wants to make a flawed argument, usually to sway readers’ opinions or make their opposition look worse.
The best way to avoid making logical fallacies in your writing is to familiarize yourself with them and learn how to recognize them. That way, they’ll stick out to you when you’re reading your first draft, and you’ll see exactly where your writing needs thoughtful revision.
Challenge these 15 common types of logical fallacies.
As you’ll see below, an argument can be flawed. Take a look at fifteen of the most commonly used logical fallacies.
Ad hominem
An ad hominem fallacy attempts to invalidate an opponent’s position based on a personal trait or fact about the opponent rather than through logic.
Example: Katherine is the lousy choice for mayor because she didn’t grow up in this town.
Red herring
A red herring attempts to shift focus from the debate by introducing an irrelevant point.
Example: Losing a tooth can be scary, but have you heard about the Tooth Fairy?
Straw man
A strawman argument argues against a hyperbolic, inaccurate version of the opposition rather than their actual argument.
Example: Erin thinks we should stop using all plastics immediately to save the planet from climate change.
Equivocation
An equivocation is a statement crafted to mislead or confuse readers or listeners by using multiple meanings or interpretations of a word or simply through unclear phrasing.
Example: While I have a simple plan for the campus budget that accounts for every dollar spent, my opponent wants to throw money at special interest projects.
Slippery slope
With a slippery slope fallacy, the arguer claims a specific series of events will follow one starting point, typically with no supporting evidence for this chain of events.
Example: If we make an exception for Bijal’s service dog, other people will want to bring their dogs. Then everybody will get their dog, and before you know it, our restaurant will be overrun with dogs, their saliva, their hair, and all the noise they make, and nobody will want to eat here anymore.
Hasty generalization
A hasty generalization is a statement made after considering just one or a few examples rather than relying on more extensive research to back up the claim. It’s essential to remember that what constitutes sufficient research depends on the issue and its statement.
Example: I felt nauseated both times I ate pizza from Georgio’s, so I must have been allergic to something in the pizza.
Appeal to authority
In an appeal to authority, the arguer claims an authority figure’s expertise to support a claim despite this expertise being irrelevant or overstated.
Example: If you want to be healthy, stop drinking coffee. I read this on a fitness blog.
False dilemma
A false dilemma, also known as a false dichotomy, claims only two options exist. These two options are often extreme opposites, failing to acknowledge that other, more reasonable options exist.
Example: If you don’t support my decision, you were never really my friend.
Bandwagon fallacy
With the bandwagon fallacy, the arguer claims that a specific action is right because it’s popular.
Example: It’s OK to write your paper at the last minute. Everybody does it!
Appeal to ignorance
An appeal to ignorance is a claim that something must be true because it hasn’t been proven false. It can also be a claim that something must be false because it hasn’t been proven true. This is also known as the burden of proof fallacy.
Example: There must be fairies living in our attic because nobody’s ever proven that there aren’t fairies living in our attic.
Circular argument: A circular argument uses the same statement for both the premise and the conclusion. No new information or justification is introduced.
Example: Peppers are the easiest vegetable to grow because I think peppers are the easiest.
Sunk cost fallacy
With the sunk cost fallacy, the arguer justifies their decision to continue a specific action by comparing it to the time or money they’ve already spent.
Example: I’m not enjoying this book but bought it, so I must finish reading it.
Appeal to pity
An appeal to pity attempts to sway a reader’s or listener’s opinion by provoking them emotionally. Example: I should have been on time for the interview but woke up late and felt terrible about it. The stress of being late made it hard to concentrate on driving here.
Causal Fallacy
A causal fallacy implies a relationship between two things where one can’t be proven.
Example: When ice cream sales are up, so are shark attacks. Buying ice cream increases your risk of being bitten by sharks.
Appeal to hypocrisy
An appeal to hypocrisy, also known as a tu quoque fallacy, is a rebuttal that responds to one claim with reactive criticism rather than a reaction to the claim itself.
