There are four kinds of atomic orbitals, s(sharp), p(principle), d(diffuse), and f(fundamental). There are a few orbital combinations present inside every atom shell. An orbital is a region of space within an atom where an electron in a given subshell can be found. Any orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons with opposite spins. Everything in the chemical world ultimately boils down to energy. Atoms have a structure in the form of a minor, compact nucleus surrounded by mostly space.
ElectrElectrons occupy orbitals of low energy (closer to the nucleus) until they enter those of higher energy. When four atomic orbitals mix, they form four hybrid orbitals on occupy orbitals of low energy (closer to the nucleus) until they enter those of higher energy. When four atomic orbitals mix, they form four hybrid orbitals. Atomic Orbital structures, such as shells, subshells, electron spin, quantum energy states, and orbital priority, predict associated hybridization properties and seven magic numbers. Quantum field theory is relativistic. Quantum field theory is the underlying theory of the Standard Model of particle physics.
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Individual isolated charged particles of any type cannot emit photons. When an electron and a proton combine, they make a neutrino and a neutron. Protons are 2,000 times heavier than electrons, making them much harder to shake. Quantum mechanics determines that there are no particles and no waves, only something that has properties of both. The only things that exist are wavicles, which change abruptly when measured. The wavelength and the energy of the frequency provide momentum. The location of an electron is defined by its wave function. The probability density at the electron’s origin is finite. Neutrons and Protons are not fundamental particles. They are composite particles. Quarks are fundamental. The quarks are bound together by force-carrying fundamental particles called gluons. These particles mediate the strong nuclear force. Electrons are fundamental particles in that they are not made of other particles. These particle fields are fundamental. When a quantum field is energized (excited), the excitation is referred to as a particle.
When we observe the position of a particle in a quantum mechanical system, we are fixing time to a specific value—this collapse of the wave function. The collapse of the wave function occurs whenever we select a time. Electrons are in a quantum state when expressed as being located in energy shells. The repulsive electrical interactions of the electrons keep the matter from going through other matter. Electromagnetic radiation is a particular form of excitation of the electromagnetic field. These excitations may propagate as waves but may also be localized and detected as particles.
When a charged object accelerates, its momentum changes, giving off some radiation. This radiation carries momentum and energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. The radiation propagates at the speed of light until it encounters another charged object, where it gives up the momentum and energy to the second object. This allows the total momentum change to balance simultaneously. Accelerating neutrinos emit weak radiation. Accelerating neutrons emit strong force nuclear radiation. Accelerating massive objects emit gravitational acceleration. Uncharged objects can also accelerate, emitting other kinds of radiation.
Different sets of equations govern precisely how radiation is emitted in each case. Maxwell’s equations work for electromagnetic, Einstein’s field equations work for gravitational, etc.
